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Illusion - Is Seeing Really Believing?
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Illusion - Is Seeing Really Believing (1998)(Marshall Media)[Mac-PC].iso
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00026_Field_frep60.txt
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1996-12-30
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Almost all cells in the
nervous system receive inputs
from more than one other cell.
This is called convergence.
Almost all cells have axons that
split many times and supply a
large number of other nerve
cells--perhaps hundreds or
thousands. We call this
divergence. You can easily see
that without convergence and
divergence the nervous system
would not be worth much: an
excitatory synapse that
slavishly passed every impulse
along to the next cell would
serve no function, and an
inhibitory synapse that
provided the only input to a cell
would have nothing to inhibit,
unless the postsynaptic cell
had some special mechanism to
cause it to fire spontaneously.
I should make a final
comment about the signals that
nerve fibers transmit. Although
most axons carry all-or-none
impulses, some exceptions
exist. If local depolarization of
a nerve is subthreshold--that
is, if it is insufficient to start
up an explosive, all-or-none
propagated impulse--it will
nevertheless tend to spread
along the fiber, declining with
time and with distance from the
place where it began. (In a
propagated nerve impulse, this
local spread is what brings the
potential in the next, resting
section of nerve membrane to
the threshold level of
depolarization, at which
regeneration occurs.) Some
axons are so short that no
propagated impulse is needed;
by passive spread,
depolarization at the cell body
or dendrites can produce
enough depolarization at the
synaptic terminals to cause a
release of transmitter. In
mammals, the cases in which
information is known to be
transmitted without impulses
are few but important. In our
retinas, two or three of the five
nerve-cell types function
without impulses.
An important way in which
these passively conducted
signals differ from impulses--
besides their small and
progressively diminishing
amplitude--is that their size
varies depending on the
strength of the stimulus. They
are therefore often referred to
as graded signals. The bigger the
signal, the more depolarization
at the terminals, and the more
transmitter released. You will
remember that impulses, on the
contrary, do not increase in
size as the stimulus increases;
instead, their repetition rate
increases. And the faster an
impulse fires, the more
transmitter is released at the
terminals. So the final result is
not very different. It is popular
to say that graded potentials
represent an example of analog
signals, and that impulse
conduction, being all or none,
is digital. I find this
misleading, because the exact
position of each impulse in a
train is not in most cases of any
significance. What matters is
the average rate in a given time
interval, not the fine details.
Both kinds of signals are thus
essentially analog.